中英文毕业论文桥梁裂缝产生原因浅析土木工程毕业论文外文翻译.doc

专业外文资料翻译题 目： 桥梁裂缝产生原因浅析 学 科 部：理工学科部专 业：土木工程道桥方向班 级： 学 号： 学生姓名：指导教师：桥梁裂缝产生原因浅析近年来，我省交通基础建设得到迅猛发展，各地建立了大量的混凝土桥梁。在桥梁建造和使用过程中，出现了大量有关因出现裂缝而影响工程质量甚至导桥梁垮塌的报道。混凝土开裂可以说是“常发病”和“多发病”，经常困扰着桥梁工程技术人员。其实，如果采取一定的设计和施工措施，很多裂缝是可以克服和控制的。为了进一步加强对混凝土桥梁裂缝的认识，尽量避免工程中出现危害较大的裂缝，本文对混凝土桥梁裂缝的种类和产生的原因作较全面的分析、总结，以方便设计、施工找出控制裂缝的可行办法，达到预防的作用。混凝土桥梁裂缝种类和形成原因复杂而繁多，甚至多种因素相互影响，但每一条裂缝均有其产生的一种或几种主要原因。这种混凝土桥梁裂缝，就其产生的原因，大致可划分如下几种：一、荷载引起的裂缝混凝土桥梁在常规静、动荷载及次应力下产生的裂缝称荷载裂缝，归纳起来主要有直接应力裂缝、次应力裂缝两种。直接应力裂缝是指外荷载引起的直接应力产生的裂缝。裂缝产生的原因有：（一） 设计计算阶段，结构计算时不计算或部分漏算；计算模型不合理；结构受力假设与实际受力不符；荷载少算或漏算；内力与配筋计算错误；结构安全系数不够。结构设计时不考虑施工的可能性；设计断面不足；钢筋设置偏少或布置错误；结构刚度不足；构造处理不当；设计图纸交代不清等。（二） 施工阶段，不加限制地堆放施工机具、材料；不了解预制结构结构受力特点，随意翻身、起吊、运输、安装；不按设计图纸施工，擅自更改结构施工顺序，改变结构受力模式；不对结构做机器振动下的疲劳强度验算等。（三） 使用阶段，超出设计载荷的重型车辆过桥；受车辆、船舶的接触、撞击；发生大风、大雪、地震、爆炸等。 次应力裂缝是指由外荷载引起的次生应力产生裂缝。裂缝产生的原因有： （一） 在设计外荷载作用下，由于结构物的实际工作状态同常规计算有出入或计算不考虑，从而在某些部位引起次应力导致结构开裂。例如两铰拱桥拱脚设计时常采用布置“X”形钢筋、同时削减该处断面尺寸的办法设计铰，理论计算该处不会存在弯矩，但实际该铰仍然能够抗弯，以至出现裂缝而导致钢筋锈蚀。（二） 桥梁结构中经常需要凿槽、开洞、设置牛腿等，在常规计算中难以用准确的图式进行模拟计算，一般根据经验设置受力钢筋。研究表明，受力构件挖孔后，力流将产生绕射现象，在孔洞附近密集，产生巨大的应力集中。在长跨预应力连续梁中，经常在跨内根据截面内力需要截断钢束，设置锚头，而在锚固断面附近经常可以看到裂缝。因此，若处理不当，在这些结构的转角处或构件形状突变处、受力钢筋截断处容易出现裂缝。 实际工程中，次应力裂缝是产生荷载裂缝的最常见原因。次应力裂缝多属张拉、劈裂、剪切性质。次应力裂缝也是由荷载引起，仅是按常规一般不计算，但随着现代计算手段的不断完善，次应力裂缝也是可以做到合理验算的。例如现在对预应力、徐变等产生的二次应力，不少平面杆系有限元程序均可正确计算，但在40年前却比较困难。在设计上，应注意避免结构突变（或断面突变），当不能回避时，应做局部处理，如转角处做圆角，突变处做成渐变过渡，同时加强构造配筋，转角处增配斜向钢筋，对于较大孔洞有条件时可在周边设置护边角钢。荷载裂缝特征依荷载不同而异呈现不同的特点。这类裂缝多出现在受拉区、受剪区或振动严重部位。但必须指出，如果受压区出现起皮或有沿受压方向的短裂缝，往往是结构达到承载力极限的标志，是结构破坏的前兆，其原因往往是截面尺寸偏小。根据结构不同受力方式，产生的裂缝特征如下：（一） 中心受拉。裂缝贯穿构件横截面，间距大体相等，且垂直于受力方向。采用螺纹钢筋时，裂缝之间出现位于钢筋附近的次裂缝。 （二） 中心受压。沿构件出现平行于受力方向的短而密的平行裂缝。 （三） 受弯。弯矩最大截面附近从受拉区边沿开始出现与受拉方向垂直的裂缝，并逐渐向中和轴方向发展。采用螺纹钢筋时，裂缝间可见较短的次裂缝。当结构配筋较少时，裂缝少而宽，结构可能发生脆性破坏。（四） 大偏心受压。大偏心受压和受拉区配筋较少的小偏心受压构件，类似于受弯构件。（五） 小偏心受压。小偏心受压和受拉区配筋较多的大偏心受压构件，类似于中心受压构件。 （六）受剪。当箍筋太密时发生斜压破坏，沿梁端腹部出现大于45度方向的斜裂缝；当箍筋适当时发生剪压破坏，沿梁端中下部出现约45度方向相互平行的斜裂缝。（七）受扭。构件一侧腹部先出现多条约45度方向斜裂缝，并向相邻面以螺旋方向展开。（八） 受冲切。沿柱头板内四侧发生约45度方向斜面拉裂，形成冲切面。 （九）局部受压。在局部受压区出现与压力方向大致平行的多条短裂缝。二、 温度变化引起的裂缝 混凝土具有热胀冷缩性质，当外部环境或结构内部温度发生变化，混凝土将发生变形，若变形遭到约束，则在结构内将产生应力，当应力超过混凝土抗拉强度时即产生温度裂缝。在某些大跨径桥梁中，温度应力可以达到甚至超出活载应力。温度裂缝区别其它裂缝最主要特征是将随温度变化而扩张或合拢。引起温度变化主要因素有：（一）年温差。一年中四季温度不断变化，但变化相对缓慢，对桥梁结构的影响主要是导致桥梁的纵向位移，一般可通过桥面伸缩缝、支座位移或设置柔性墩等构造措施相协调，只有结构的位移受到限制时才会引起温度裂缝，例如拱桥、刚架桥等。我国年温差一般以一月和七月月平均温度的作为变化幅度。考虑到混凝土的蠕变特性，年温差内力计算时混凝土弹性模量应考虑折减。（二）日照。桥面板、主梁或桥墩侧面受太阳曝晒后，温度明显高于其它部位，温度梯度呈非线形分布。由于受到自身约束作用，导致局部拉应力较大，出现裂缝。日照和下述骤然降温是导致结构温度裂缝的最常见原因。（三）骤然降温。突降大雨、冷空气侵袭、日落等可导致结构外表面温度突然下降，但因内部温度变化相对较慢而产生温度梯度。日照和骤然降温内力计算时可采用设计规范或参考实桥资料进行，混凝土弹性模量不考虑折减。 （四）水化热。出现在施工过程中，大体积混凝土（厚度超过2.0米）浇筑之后由于水泥水化放热，致使内部温度很高，内外温差太大，致使表面出现裂缝。施工中应根据实际情况，尽量选择水化热低的水泥品种，限制水泥单位用量，减少骨料入模温度，降低内外温差，并缓慢降温，必要时可采用循环冷却系统进行内部散热，或采用薄层连续浇筑以加快散热。 （五）蒸汽养护或冬季施工时施工措施不当，混凝土骤冷骤热，内外温度不均，易出现裂缝。（六）预制T梁之间横隔板安装时，支座预埋钢板与调平钢板焊接时，若焊接措施不当，铁件附近混凝土容易烧伤开裂。采用电热张拉法张拉预应力构件时，预应力钢材温度可升高至350，混凝土构件也容易开裂。试验研究表明，由火灾等原因引起高温烧伤的混凝土强度随温度的升高而明显降低，钢筋与混凝土的粘结力随之下降，混凝土温度达到300后抗拉强度下降50%，抗压强度下降60%，光圆钢筋与混凝土的粘结力下降80%；由于受热，混凝土体内游离水大量蒸发也可产生急剧收缩。三、 收缩引起的裂缝在实际工程中，混凝土因收缩所引起的裂缝是最常见的。在混凝土收缩种类中，塑性收缩和缩水收缩（干缩）是发生混凝土体积变形的主要原因，另外还有自生收缩和炭化收缩。 塑性收缩。发生在施工过程中、混凝土浇筑后45小时左右，此时水泥水化反应激烈，分子链逐渐形成，出现泌水和水分急剧蒸发，混凝土失水收缩，同时骨料因自重下沉，因此时混凝土尚未硬化，称为塑性收缩。塑性收缩所产生量级很大，可达1%左右。在骨料下沉过程中若受到钢筋阻挡，便形成沿钢筋方向的裂缝。在构件竖向变截面处如T梁、箱梁腹板与顶底板交接处，因硬化前沉实不均匀将发生表面的顺腹板方向裂缝。为减小混凝土塑性收缩，施工时应控制水灰比，避免过长时间的搅拌，下料不宜太快，振捣要密实，竖向变截面处宜分层浇筑。 缩水收缩（干缩）。混凝土结硬以后，随着表层水分逐步蒸发，湿度逐步降低，混凝土体积减小，称为缩水收缩（干缩）。因混凝土表层水分损失快，内部损失慢，因此产生表面收缩大、内部收缩小的不均匀收缩，表面收缩变形受到内部混凝土的约束，致使表面混凝土承受拉力，当表面混凝土承受拉力超过其抗拉强度时，便产生收缩裂缝。混凝土硬化后收缩主要就是缩水收缩。如配筋率较大的构件（超过3%），钢筋对混凝土收缩的约束比较明显，混凝土表面容易出现龟裂裂纹。 自生收缩。自生收缩是混凝土在硬化过程中，水泥与水发生水化反应，这种收缩与外界湿度无关，且可以是正的（即收缩，如普通硅酸盐水泥混凝土），也可以是负的（即膨胀，如矿渣水泥混凝土与粉煤灰水泥混凝土）。炭化收缩。大气中的二氧化碳与水泥的水化物发生化学反应引起的收缩变形。炭化收缩只有在湿度50%左右才能发生，且随二氧化碳的浓度的增加而加快。炭化收缩一般不做计算。 混凝土收缩裂缝的特点是大部分属表面裂缝，裂缝宽度较细，且纵横交错，成龟裂状，形状没有任何规律。研究表明，影响混凝土收缩裂缝的主要因素有： （一）水泥品种、标号及用量。矿渣水泥、快硬水泥、低热水泥混凝土收缩性较高，普通水泥、火山灰水泥、矾土水泥混凝土收缩性较低。另外水泥标号越低、单位体积用量越大、磨细度越大，则混凝土收缩越大，且发生收缩时间越长。例如，为了提高混凝土的强度，施工时经常采用强行增加水泥用量的做法，结果收缩应力明显加大。 （二）骨料品种。骨料中石英、石灰岩、白云岩、花岗岩、长石等吸水率较小、收缩性较低；而砂岩、板岩、角闪岩等吸水率较大、收缩性较高。另外骨料粒径大收缩小，含水量大收缩越大。（三）水灰比。用水量越大，水灰比越高，混凝土收缩越大。（四）外掺剂。外掺剂保水性越好，则混凝土收缩越小。 （五）养护方法。良好的养护可加速混凝土的水化反应，获得较高的混凝土强度。养护时保持湿度越高、气温越低、养护时间越长，则混凝土收缩越小。蒸汽养护方式比自然养护方式混凝土收缩要小。（六）外界环境。大气中湿度小、空气干燥、温度高、风速大，则混凝土水分蒸发快，混凝土收缩越快。 7、振捣方式及时间。机械振捣方式比手工捣固方式混凝土收缩性要小。振捣时间应根据机械性能决定，一般以515s/次为宜。时间太短，振捣不密实，形成混凝土强度不足或不均匀；时间太长，造成分层，粗骨料沉入底层，细骨料留在上层，强度不均匀，上层易发生收缩裂缝。对于温度和收缩引起的裂缝，增配构造钢筋可明显提高混凝土的抗裂性，尤其是薄壁结（壁厚2060cm）。构造上配筋宜优先采用小直径钢筋(814)、小间距布置(1015cm)，全截面构造配筋率不宜低于0.3%，一般可采用0.3%0.5%。四、 地基础变形引起的裂缝 由于基础竖向不均匀沉降或水平方向位移，使结构中产生附加应力，超出混凝土结构的抗拉能力，导致结构开裂。基础不均匀沉降的主要原因有：（一）地质勘察精度不够、试验资料不准。在没有充分掌握地质情况就设计、施工，这是造成地基不均匀沉降的主要原因。比如丘陵区或山岭区桥梁，勘察时钻孔间距太远，而地基岩面起伏又大，勘察报告不能充分反映实际地质情况。（二）地基地质差异太大。建造在山区沟谷的桥梁，河沟处的地质与山坡处变化较大，河沟中甚至存在软弱地基，地基土由于不同压缩性引起不均匀沉降。（三）结构荷载差异太大。在地质情况比较一致条件下，各部分基础荷载差异太大时，有可能引起不均匀沉降，例如高填土箱形涵洞中部比两边的荷载要大，中部的沉降就要比两边大，箱涵可能开裂。 （四）结构基础类型差别大。同一联桥梁中，混合使用不同基础如扩大基础和桩基础，或同时采用桩基础但桩径或桩长差别大时，或同时采用扩大基础但基底标高差异大时，也可能引起地基不均匀沉降。（五）分期建造的基础。在原有桥梁基础附近新建桥梁时，如分期修建的高速公路左右半幅桥梁，新建桥梁荷载或基础处理时引起地基土重新固结，均可能对原有桥梁基础造成较大沉降。（六）地基冻胀。在低于零度的条件下含水率较高的地基土因冰冻膨胀；一旦温度回升，冻土融化，地基下沉。因此地基的冰冻或融化均可造成不均匀沉降。（七）桥梁基础置于滑坡体、溶洞或活动断层等不良地质时，可能造成不均匀沉降。（八）桥梁建成以后，原有地基条件变化。大多数天然地基和人工地基浸水后，尤其是素填土、黄土、膨胀土等特殊地基土，土体强度遇水下降，压缩变形加大。在软土地基中，因人工抽水或干旱季节导致地下水位下降，地基土层重新固结下沉，同时对基础的上浮力减小，负摩阻力增加，基础受荷加大。有些桥梁基础埋置过浅，受洪水冲刷、淘挖，基础可能位移。地面荷载条件的变化，如桥梁附近因塌方、山体滑坡等原因堆置大量废方、砂石等，桥址范围土层可能受压缩再次变形。因此，使用期间原有地基条件变化均可能造成不均匀沉降。对于拱桥等产生水平推力的结构物，对地质情况掌握不够、设计不合理和施工时破坏了原有地质条件是产生水平位移裂缝的主要原因。The bridge crack produced the reason to simply analyse In recent years, the traffic capital construction of our province gets swift and violent development, all parts have built a large number of concrete bridges. In the course of building and using in the bridge, relevant to influence project quality lead of common occurrence report that bridge collapse even because the crack appears The concrete can be said to " often have illness coming on " while fracturing and " frequently-occurring disease ", often perplex bridge engineers and technicians. In fact , if take certain design and construction measure, a lot of cracks can be overcome and controlled. For strengthen understanding of concrete bridge crack further, is it prevent project from endanger larger crack to try one's best, this text make an more overall analysis , summary to concrete kind and reason of production , bridge of crack as much as possible, in order to design , construct and find out the feasible method which control the crack , get the result of taking precautions against Yu WeiRan. Concrete bridge crack kind, origin cause of formation In fact, the origin cause of formation of the concrete structure crack is complicated and various, even many kinds of factors influence each other , but every crack has its one or several kinds of main reasons produced . The kind of the concrete bridge crack, on its reason to produce, can roughly divide several kinds as follows :(1) load the crack caused Concrete in routine quiet . Is it load to move and crack that produce claim to load the crack under the times of stress bridge, summing up has direct stress cracks , two kinds stress crack onces mainly. Direct stress crack refer to outside load direct crack that stress produce that cause. The reason why the crack produces is as follows, 1, Design the stage of calculating , does not calculate or leaks and calculates partly while calculating in structure; Calculate the model is unreasonable; The structure is supposed and accorded with by strength actually by strength ; Load and calculate or leak and calculate few; Internal force and matching the mistake in computation of muscle; Safety coefficient of structure is not enough. Do not consider the possibility that construct at the time of the structural design; It is insufficient to design the section; It is simply little and assigning the mistake for reinforcing bar to set up; Structure rigidity is insufficient; Construct and deal with improperly; The design drawing can not be explained clearly etc. 2, Construction stage, does not pile up and construct the machines , material limiting ; Is it prefabricate structure structure receive strength characteristic , stand up , is it hang , transport , install to get up at will to understand; Construct not according to the design drawing, alter the construction order of the structure without authorization , change the structure and receive the strength mode; Do not do the tired intensity checking computations under machine vibration and wait to the structure . 3, Using stage, the heavy-duty vehicle which goes beyond the design load passes the bridge; Receive the contact , striking of the vehicle , shipping; Strong wind , heavy snow , earthquake happen , explode etc. Stress crack once means the stress of secondary caused by loading outside produces the crack. The reason why the crack produces is as follows, 1, In design outside load function , because actual working state and routine , structure of thing calculate have discrepancy or is it consider to calculate, thus cause stress once to cause the structure to fracture in some position. Two is it join bridge arch foot is it is it assign " X " shape reinforcing bar , cut down this place way , section of size design and cut with scissors at the same time to adopt often to design to cut with scissors, theory calculate place this can store curved square in , but reality should is it can resist curved still to cut with scissors, so that present the crack and cause the reinforcing bar corrosion. 2, Bridge structure is it dig trough , turn on hole , set up ox leg ,etc. to need often, difficult to use a accurate one diagrammatic to is it is it calculate to imitate to go on in calculating in routine, set up and receive the strength reinforcing bar in general foundation experience. Studies have shown , after being dug the hole by the strength component , it will produce the diffraction phenomenon that strength flows, intensive near the hole in a utensil, produced the enormous stress to concentrate. In long to step prestressing force of the continuous roof beam , often block the steel bunch according to the needs of section internal force in stepping, set up the anchor head, but can often see the crack in the anchor firm section adjacent place. So if deal with improper, in corner or component form sudden change office , block place to be easy to appear crack strength reinforcing bar of structure the. In the actual project, stress crack once produced the most common reason which loads the crack. Stress crack once belong to one more piece of nature of drawing , splitting off , shearing. Stress crack once is loaded and caused, only seldom calculate according to the routine too, but with modern to calculate constant perfection of means, times of stress crack to can accomplish reasonable checking computations too. For example to such stresses 2 times of producing as prestressing force , creeping ,etc., department's finite element procedure calculates levels pole correctly now, but more difficult 40 years ago. In the design, should pay attention to avoiding structure sudden change (or section sudden change), when it is unable to avoid , should do part deal with , corner for instance, make round horn , sudden change office make into the gradation zone transition, is it is it mix muscle to construct to strengthen at the same time, corner mix again oblique to reinforcing bar , as to large hole in a utensil can set up protecting in the perimeter at the terms of having angle steel. Load the crack characteristic in accordance with loading differently and presenting different characteristics differently. The crack appear person who draw more, the cutting area or the serious position of vibration. Must point out , is it get up cover or have along keep into short crack of direction to appear person who press, often the structure reaches the sign of bearing the weight of strength limit, it is an omen that the structure is destroyed, its reason is often that sectional size is partial and small. Receive the strength way differently according to the structure, the crack characteristic produced is as follows: 1, The centre is drawn. The crack runs through the component cross section , the interval is equal on the whole , and is perpendicular to receiving the strength direction. While adopting the whorl reinforcing bar , lie in the second-class crack near the reinforcing bar between the cracks. 2, The centre is pressed. It is parallel on the short and dense parallel crack which receive the strength direction to appear along the component. 3, Receive curved. Most near the large section from border is it appear and draw into direction vertical crack to begin person who draw curved square, and develop toward neutralization axle gradually. While adopting the whorl reinforcing bar , can see shorter second-class crack among the cracks. When the structure matches muscles less, there are few but wide cracks, fragility destruction may take place in the structure 4, Pressed big and partial. Heavy to press and mix person who draw muscle a less one light to pigeonhole into the component while being partial while being partial, similar to receiving the curved component. 5, Pressed small and partial. Small to press and mix person who draw muscle a more one heavy to pigeonhole into the component while being partial while being partial, similar to the centre and pressed the component. 6, Cut. Press obliquly when the hoop muscle is too dense and destroy, the oblique crack which is greater than 45? direction appears along the belly of roof beam end; Is it is it is it destroy to press to cut to happen when the hoop muscle is proper, underpart is it invite 45? direction parallel oblique crack each other to appear along roof beam end. 7, Sprained. Component one side belly appear many direction oblique crack, 45? of treaty, first, and to launch with spiral direction being adjoint. 8, Washed and cut. 4 side is it invite 45? direction inclined plane draw and split to take place along column cap board, form the tangent plane of washing. 9, Some and is pressed. Some to appear person who press direction roughly parallel large short cracks with pressure. (2) crack caused in temperature change The concrete has nature of expanding with heat and contract with cold, look on as the external environment condition or the structure temperature changes, concrete take place out of shape, if out of shape to restrain from, produce the stress in the structure, produce the temperature crack promptly when exceeding concrete tensile strength in stress. In some being heavy to step foot-path among the bridge , temperature stress can is it go beyond living year stress even to reach. The temperature crack distinguishes the main characteristic of other cracks will be varied with temperature and expanded or closed up. The main factor is as follows, to cause temperature and change 1, Annual difference in temperature. Temperature is changing constantly in four seasons in one year, but change relat