Formation-of-A-Contract-中文翻译.docx

FORMATIONOFACONTRACT合同的形成1. Acontractisanagreementgivingrisetoobligationswhichareenforcedorrecognisedbylaw.合同指的是阐述缔约各方应般行的义务的约定，其内容己得到法律认可,可强制执行。2. Incommonlaw,thereare3basicessentialstothecreationofacontract:(i)agreement;(ii)contractualintention;and(iii)nsideratio.依据做法的规定，合同的创建须要满意三大票本要素：(1)缔约方约定；(2)打为意图：(3)对价，3. Thefirstrequisiteofacontractisthatthepartiesshouldhavereachedagreement.Generallyspeaking,anagreementisreachedwhenonepartymakesanoffer,whichisacceptedbyanotherparty.Indecidingwhetherthepartieshavereachedagreement,thecourtswillapplyanobjectivetest.合同的第一个必的要素是缔约方已达成的定.通常而言当一方提出要约而另一方接受该要约时就视为已达成了约定,为确定缔约方是否已达成约定，法院会组织一次客观测试.A.OFFER要的4. AnofferisanexpressionofwillingnesstocontractonSpeafiedterms,madewiththeintentionthatitistobebindingonceacceptedbythepersontowhomitisaddressed.1Theremustbeanobjectivemanifestationofintentbytheofferortobeboundbytheofferifacceptedbytheotherparty.Therefore,theofferorwillbeboundifhiswordsorconductaresuchastoinduceareasonablethirdpartyobservertobelievethatheintendstobebound,evenifinfacthehasnosuchintention.Thiswasheldtobethecasewhereauniversitymadeanofferofaplacetoanintendingstudentasaresultofaclericalerron2要约表达了达成特定条款的意展，且具备这样的意图：一旦受要约人接受了该要约，将对要约人产生法定约束效力.'要约人意图的客观表现在于，一旦另一方接受该要约，要约人将受到该要约商的约束.因此.若要约人的古谱或行为让理智的第三方旁观者信任其将受到合同提议的约束,即便要约人并无此类意图,该要约仍对其有约束效力.举个例立由于堂误缘由，某个高校错误地向某个对该校有爱好的学生供应了份录用通知书，此时该录用通知书是有法律效力的.,5. Anoffercanbeaddressedtoasingleperson,toaspecifiedgroupofpersons,ortotheworidatlarge.Anexampleofthelatterwouldbearewardposterforthereturnofalostpet.要约函的对象为单个人士，或特定群体人士或社会全部人士，比如主子张贴悬赏通告以找回丢失的宠物时，悬噌.要约就是针对社会全部人士的，6. Anoffermaybemadeexpressly(bywords)orbyconduct.要约可通过口头明确表达出来，或者用行为表达7. Anoffermustbedistinguishedfromaninvitationtotreat,bywhichapersondoesnotmakeanofferbutinvitesanotherpartytodoso.Whetherastatementisanofferoraninvitationtotreatdependsprimarilyontheintentionwithwhichitismade.Aninvitationtotreatisnotmadewiththeintentionthatitistobebindingassoonasthepersontowhomitisaddressedcommunicateshisassenttoitsterms.要约应与遨约区分开来。在遨约中，地清方并未供应一份具有约束效力的要约而是邀请另一方这么做.要约和邀约的区分主要在于其意图.邀约并不具备这样的意图：只要接收方同意邀约中的条款的话，该邀约将对邀请方产生法定约束效力.8. ACCEPTANCE受妁8. Anacceptanceisafinalandunqualifiedexpressionofassenttothetermsofanoffer.Again,theremustbeanobjectivemanifestation,bytherecipientoftheoffer,ofanintentiontobeboundbyitsterms.AnoffermustbeacceptedinaccordancewithItsprecisetermsifItistoformanagreement.ItmustexactlymatchtheofferandA1.1.termsmustbeaccepted.受的指的是受要约人最终完全同意该要约的所述条款,因此,受要约人意图的客观表现在于：其准备接受相关条款的约束.要构成约定，受要的人须要接受要约的详细条款.必完全同就该要约，且必需接受其全部条款，才能构成约定，9. Anoffermaybeacceptedbyconduct(forexample,anoffertobuygoodscanbeacceptedbysendingthemtotheofferor).受要约人可用行动表明其接受要约(例如，若准备接受货物选购要约的话，受要约人可干脆向要约人发货)。10. Acceptancehasnolegaleffectuntilitiscommunicatedtotheofferor(becauseitcouldcausehardshiptotheofferortobeboundwithoutknowingthathisofferhadbeenaccepted).ThegeneralruleisthatapostalacceptancetakeseffectwhentheletterofacceptanceispostedS(evenIfthelettermaybelost,delayedordestroyed6).Howevecthepostalrulewillnotapplyfitisexcludedbytheexpresstermsoftheoffer.Anofferwhichrequiresacceptancetobecommunicatedinaspecifiedwaycangenerallybeacceptedonlyinthatway.Ifacceptanceoccursviaaninstantaneousmediumsuchasemail,itwilltakeeffectatthetimeandplaceofreceipt.Notethatanofferorcannotstipulatethattheofferee'ssilenceamountstoacceptance.接受要约本号并不会产牛.法定效力，只有当受要约人告知要约人其料接受要约后，接受要约才会产生法定约束效力(域中是：假如要约人不知道其要约已被接受的话,将很难过到该要约的约束因此，普遍的做法是，当受要约人为接受函贴上眦政觇粟时5,将视作受要约人已接受该要约(即使该函件后来遭到遗失、递送延误或完全被破坏但是，若要约明确拒绝实行邮寄方式时，则该规则不适用。若要约规定接收脸必需以特定方式递送时，将机作只有通过该方式递送时接收函才对要约人产生约束效力.若接收函是通过邮件等即时通讯传达的，其其将在要约人收到眺件的时间和地点生效.应留意的是.要的人不得认为受要约人的缄默等同于接受提议，11. Acommunicationfailstotakeeffectasanacceptancewhereitattemptstovarythetermsofanoffer.Insuchcasesitisacounter-offer,whichtheoriginalofferorcaneitheracceptorreject.Forexample,wheretheofferorofferstotradeonitsstandardtermsandtheoffereepurportstoaccept,butonItsownstandardterms,thatrepresentsacounteroffer.Makingacounterofferamountstoarejectionoftheoriginalofferwhichcannotsubsequentlyberestoredoraccepted(unlessthepartiesagree).Itisimportanttodistinguishacounter-offerfromamererequestforfurtherinformationregardingtheoriginaloffer.若接受函试图变更要约的条款，则视作该接收函无法生效。此时称为“反要约”，必初的要约人可选择接受或拒绝反要约。例如，当要约人提出依据标准条款交易H.受要约人同意依据标准条款交易,但遵循的是其自己的标准条款,此时应视作反要约.反要约等同于拒绝原来的要约，这过程是不行逆的，除作合同各方样同意.必要的是要学会区分反要约和只要求供应进一步信息的恳求函O12. Anoffermayberevokedatanytimebeforeitsacceptance,howevertherevocationmustbecommunicatedtotheofferee.Althoughrevocationneednotbecommunicatedbytheofferorpersonally(itcanbemadebyareliablethirdparty),ifitisnotmmunicatedrtherevocationisineffective.在被受要约人接受之前,要约人可随时撤回要约，但应将撤回消息刚好传达给受要约人。尽管掇回消息不须要传达给要的人本人（牢里的第三方也可以这么做,但若没有传达到的话.则视作撤回无效13. Onceanofferhasbeenaccepted,thepartieshaveanagreement.Thatisthebasisforacontract,butisnotsufficientinitselftocreatelegalobligations.一旦接受了要约.各方将达成了一个约定这就是合同订立的必备条件之一.但仅达成约定本身是无法构成法定义务的.Incommonlaw,apromiseisnot,asageneralrule,bindingasacontractunlessitissupportedbyconsideration(oritismadeasadeed).Considerationishsomethingofvalue*whichisgivenforapromiseandisrequiredinordertomakethepromiseenforceableasacontract.Thisistraditionallyeithersomedetrimenttothepromisee(Inthathemaygivevalue)and/orsomebenefittothepromisor(inthathemayreceivevalue).Forexample,paymentbabuyerisconsiderationfortheseller'spromisetodelivergoods,anddeliveryofgoodsisconsiderationforthebuyer'spromisetopay.Itfollowsthataninformalgratuitouspromisedoesnotamounttoacontract.依据一般法的规定，承诺不如合同那么有约束力，除非其有对价支掠(或除非已达成契的.对价指的是“有价值的东西是为了承诺而付出的东西,对价是必需的.只有这样才能使承诺能合同一样可强制执行.过去的做法是，受约人要受点损失(受约人供应对价)，而立约人则获得点好处(立约人接受对价).例如，买家付款是卖家承诺发货的对价，而发货则是买方承诺付款的对价。非正式的无对价承诺不能构成合同。Considerationmustbesufficient,butneednotbeadequate对价只需有偿，无需等价Althoughapromisehasnocontractualforceunlesssomevaluehasbeengivenforitzconsiderationneednotbeadequate.Courtsdonot,ingeneralaskwhetheradequatevaluehasbeengiven(inthesenseoftherebeinganyeconomicequivalencebetweenthevalueoftheconsiderationgivenandthevalueofanygoodsorservicesreceived).ThisIsbecausetheydonotnormallyinterferewiththebargainmadebetweentheparties.Accordinglynominalconsiderationissufficient.尽管承诺只有在获忠了肯定对价后才具有合同效力，但对价只需有偿无需等价.法院一股不会问是否立约人是否已获得等价对价(即，所付出的财价价俏和所收到的优物或服务的价值从经济角度而言是等同的)。这是因为法院一般不会干扰维约方之间的议价.因此，对价只需有偿就够了.Considerationmustnotbefromthepast从前构成的对价不行用作后来的对价Theconsiderationforapromisemustbegiveninreturnforthepromise.供应对价是为了获寿承诺，Considerationmustmovefromthepromise受的方供应对价Thepromiseemustprovidetheconsideration.Tradditionally,apersontowhomapromisewasmadecanenforceitonlyifhehimselfprovidedtheconsiderationforit.Hehasnosuchrightftheconsiderationmovedfromathirdparty.Forexample,ifApromisesBtopay£10,000toBifCwillpaintA,shouseandCdoesso,BcannotenforceA'spromise(unlessBhadprocuredorundertakentoprocureCtodothework).However,wheretheconditionsoftheContracts(RightsofThirdParties)Act1999aremet,athirdpartymaybeabletoenforcerightscreatedinhisfavourbyacontractwhichhewasnotapartyto,andthecourtsarealsoadoptingamoreflexiblepositionunderthecommonlawhere.受约人需供应对价过去的做法是.当且只当受约人为承诺付出了对价,才可要求强制执行该承诺。假如该对价是由第方供应的话.受约人则无权要求强制执行该承诺举个例子，若A承诺当C完成A房子的油漆工作时A将向B支付KX)Oo英镑，当C完成油漆工作后，B无法要求A兑现承诺(除非是B要求C完成这项工作的)但是.当1999年合同法案§的条件得到满意时.第三方可要求兑现承诺,前提是第三方缁为合同的受益人(小管它并不是该合同的缔约人)依据一般法的规定，此时法院也可实行更为触捷的做法.Whileconsiderationmustmovefromthepromisee,itneednotmovetothepromisor.First,considerationmaybesatisfiedWherethepromiseesufferssomedetrimentatthePrOmiSorSrequestbutconfersnocorrespondingbenefitonthepromisor.Forexample,thepromisetogiveuptenancyofaflatmaybeadequateconsiderationeventhoughnodirectbenefitresultstothepromisor.Secondly,considerationmaymovefromthepromiseewithoutmovingtothepromisorwherethepromisee,atthepromisor'srequest,confersabenefitonathirdparty.Insituationswheregoodsarebo/htwithacreditcard,theissuermakesapromisetothesupplierthats/hewillbepaid.Thesupplierprovidesconsiderationforthisbyprovidinggoodstothecustomer当受约人必需供应对价时，不肯定须要把时价供应应立约人。首先,在立约人的要求下，受约人公遭遇的汽定损失但无需将相应好处转达给立约人,此种状况也是可以接受的，例如,放弃公寓的租用权也可视作等价对价.即使立约人此时并没有享受到干脆好处.其次.对价可由受约人供应，但不肯定流向立约人，此时受约人可能在立约人的要求下将好处供应应第三方。用信用卡购物时，开卡行就向供应商做出了付款的承诺。供应商通过向客户供货而供应有效的对价.