胡壮麟《语言学教程》(修订版).docx

胡壮修语言学教程修订版第一局SS各章节堤纲策记Chapter1Invitationsto1.inguistics1 .Wysig1.anguage?1. 1.anguageisveryessentia1.tohumanbeings.2. In1.anguagetherearemanythingsweshou1.dknow.3. Forfurtherunderstanding.weneedtostudy1.anguagescientifica1.1.y.1.2 Wbatis1.anguage91.anguageisameans以munication.Itisasystemofarbitraryvoca1.symbo1.susedforhumancommunication.1.3 Designfeaturesof1.anguageThefeaturesthatdefineourhuman1.anguagescanbecak)ddesignfeaturesMchcandistinguishhuman1.anguagefromanyanima1.systemofmmuication.1.3.1 ArbitrarinessArbrtfafinessreferstothefactthattheformsofIingutstfcsignsbearnonatura1.re1.ationshiptotheirmeanings.1.3.2 DuaStyDuafrtyreferstothepropertyofhavingtwoIeveisofstructures,suchthatunitsoftheprimary1.eve1.aremosedofe1.ementsofthesecondary1.eve1.andeachofthetwo1.eve1.shasitsownprincip1.eso1.organization1.3.3 CreativityCreativitymeansthat1.anguageisresourcefu1.becauseofitsdua1.ityanditsrecursiveness.Recursivenessreferstotheru1.ewhichcanbeappsedrepeated1.yWImoUtanydefinite1.imit,Thorecursivenatureof1.anguageprovjesathe<xotcabasisforIhepossibtyofcreatinge11desssentences.1.3.4 Disp1.acementDisp1.acementmeansthathuman1.anguagesenabtetheiruserstosymbo1.izeobjects,eventsandconceptswcharenotpresent(intimeandspace)atthemomentofconversation.1.4 Originof1.anguage1. Thebow-v/owtheoryInprimitivetimespeop1.enitatodthosoundsoftheanima1.ca1.1.sinthewadenvironmentthey1.ivedandspeechdeve1.opedfromthat.2. Theph-phtheoryInthehard1.ifeOtourprimitiveancestors,theyutterinstinct*vesoundsofpains,angerandJOywhichgradua1.1.ydeve1.opediro1.anguage3. The*yo-he-ho,theoryAsPfimigepeop1.eworkedtogether,theyproducedsomerhyihm1.cgruntswchgradua1.1.ydeve1.opedintochantsandtheninto1.anguage1.5 Functionsof1.anguageAsisproposedbyJacobson,1.anguagehassixfunctions:1. Reterentia1.:toconveymessageandInf(Xmati8；2. Pootic:toindu1.gein1.anguageforI1.Sownsake;3. Emotive:toexpressattitudes,fee1.ingsandemotions;4. Conative:topersuadeandinf1.uenceothersthroughcommandsandentreaties:5. Phatic:toestab1.ishcommunionwithothers;6. Meta1.inua1.：todearupintentions.WoSSandmeanings.Hafcday(1994)proposesatheoryofmetafunctionsof1.anguage.Itmeansthat1.anguagehasthreemetafu11ct>ons:1. Idea1.iona1.1unction:toveyevinformation.tocommunicateacontentthatisunknowntothehearer；2. Interpersona1.function:embodyinga1.1.useof1.anguagetoexpresssocia1.andpersona1.re1.ationships:3. Textua1.function：referringtothefactthat1.anguagehasmechanismstomakeanystretch01spokenandwrittendiscourseintoacoherentandunifiedtextandmakea1.ivingpassagedeferentfromarandom1.istofsentences.AccordingtoHuZhuangin.1.anguagehasat(eastsevenfunctions:1.1.1 InformativeTheintocmativefunctionmeans1.anguage喀theinstrumentofthoughtandPOOaCoftenus©ittocommunicatenewinformation.1.1.2 Interpersona1.functionTheinterpersona1.functionmeanspeop1.ecanuse1.anguagetoestab1.ishandmaintaintheirstatusnasociety.1.1.3 PerformativGThePerfOrmat1.Vefunctionof1.anguageisprimari1.ytochangethesocia1.statusofpersons,asGmarriageceremonies,thesentencingofcrimina1.s,theb1.essmgofchi1.dren,thenamingofaShPata1.aunchingceremony,andtheCUrSngofene11¼es.1.1.4 EmotivefunctionTheemotivefunctionisoneofthemostpowerfu1.usesof1.anguagebecauseitissocrucia1.mchangingtheemotiona1.statusofanaud*ecefororagainstsomeoneOrsomething.1.1.5 PhaticmmunionThephaticcommunionmeanspeop1.ea1.waysusesomesma1.1.,seeming1.ymeaning1.essexpressionssuchasGoodmommg.GodMessyou,Niceday,etc.,tomaintainaCOm1.(Xtabjere1.ationshipbetv¼<eenpeop1.ewithoutanyfactua1.content.1.1.6 Recreatia1.functionTherecreationa1.functionmeanspeop1.euse1.anguageforthesheerIoyofusmgit,suchasababy'sbabt*ngorachanter'schanting.1.1.7 Meta1.ingua1.functionThemeta1.i11gua1.functionmeanspeop1.ecanuse1.anguagetota1.kaboutitse1.f.E.g.Icanusetheword'book'tota1.kaboutabook,and1.eana1.sousetheexpression*thewordbook-tota*aboutthesignt>ook*itse1.f1.6 Whatis1.inguistics?1.inguisticsisthescientificstudyof1.anguage.Itstudiesnotjustone1.anguageofanyoneCommundy,butthe1.anguageofahumanbeings.1.7 Mainbranchesof1.inguistics1.7.1 PhoneticsPhoneticsisthestudyofspeechsounds,itinc1.udesthreemainareas:articu1.atoryphonetics,austicphonetics,andauditoryphonetics.1.7.2 PbonoiogyPhono1.ogystudiesth©ru1.esgoverningthestructure,distribution,andsequencingofspeechsoundsandtheshapeofsy1.1.ab1.es.1.7.3 Mcxpho1.ogyMorpho1.ogySIUckJStheminima1.unitso1.meaning-morphemesandwordformationprocesses.1.7.4 SyntaxSyntaxreferstoIheru1.esgoverningthewaywordsarecombinedtoIormsentencesina1.anguage,orSWnpIyJhestudyo1theIormationofsentences1.7.5 SemanticsSemanticsexamineshovmeaningtsencodedma1.anguage.1.7.6 PragmaticsPragmabcsistheStucJyofmeaningincontext.1.8 MacroSnguisticsMacfOfcnguisticsisthestudyof1.anguageina1.1.aspects,distinctfrommicrofcnguist>cs.WhiChdea1.tsoieywittheforma1.aspectof1.anguagesystem.1.8.1 Psycho1.inguisticsPsycho1.inguisticsinvestigatestheinterre1.ationof1.anguageandmind,inprocessingandproducingutterancesandin1.anguageacquisitionforexampte.1.8.2 Soao1.inguisiicsSodo1.ingu<sticsisatermwhichcoversavarietyofC卅Cmn(interestsin1.anguageandsociety,inc1.udingthe1.anguageandthesocia1.characteristicsofitsusers.1.8.3 Anthropotogica1.1.inguisticsAnthropo1.ogica1.1.inguisticsstudiestherea1.iosh<)between1.anguageandcu1.tureinacommunity.1.8.4 Computationa1.1.inguisticsCompu1.ationai1.inguisticsisaninterdiscip1.inaryIiadwhichcentersaroundtheuseofcomputerstoprocessorproducehuman1.anguage.1.9 Importantdistinctionsin1.inguistics1.9.1 Descriptivevs.prescriptiveTosaythatSguiSbCSsadescriptiveSGenCeistosaythatthe1.inguisttriestodiscoverandrecordtheru1.estowhichthemembersofa1.anguagecommunityactua1.1.yconformanddoes11o<seektoimposeuponthemotherrutes.ornorms,ofrrctness.Prescriptive1.inguisticsaimstoIaydov/nru1.esfortherrectuseof1.anguageandsett1.ethedisputesoverusageonceandfora.Forexamp1.e,"Don'tsayX."isaprescriptivecommand;'Peop1.edon't$ayX,"isadescriptivestatement.Thedistinction1.iesinprescribingbowthingsoughttobeanddescribnghowthingsare.Inthe18*century,a1.1.themainEuropean1.anguagesv/erestudiedpres<x<)tveiy.HoWeVer,modemMguisbcsismost1.ydesc11ptwebecausethenatureof1.inguisticsasasconcedeterminesitspreoccupationwithdesc11ptooinsteadofprescription.1.9.2 Synchronicvs.diachronicAsynchronicStuctytakesafixedinstant(usua1.1.yatpresent)asitspointofobservation.SaUSSUre'sdiachronicdescriptionisIbestudyofa1.anguagethroughthecourseofitshistory.Eg.astudyofthefeaturesoftheEng1.ishusedinShakespeare'stimeWoU1.dbesynchrone.andastudyofthechangesEng1.ishhasundergonesincethenwou1.dbeadiachronicstudy.InmodemIingutstics,synchroneStuOyseemstoen>ypriorityover(XaChfOniCstudy.Thereason«sthatun1.essIbOvariousstateofa1.anguagearesuccessfu1.1.ystudieditwou1.dbedifficu1.ttodescribethechangesthathavetakenp1.aceinitshistorica1.deve1.opment.1.9.3 1.agueParoIeSaussudistinguishedthe1.inguisticcompetenceofthspeakerandIbOactua1.phenomenaordataof1.inguisticsas1.angueandparo1.e.1.angueisre1.ativestabteandsystematic,parcetssubjecttopersona1.andsituationa1.nstramts;1.angueisnotspokenbyaninWidua1.Paroteisa1.waysaaturayoccurringevent.Whatanguistshou1.ddo,accordtngtoSaussure.istodrawru*csfromamassofconfusedfacts,i.e.todscovortheregu1.a111iGSgoverninga1.1.instancesofParoA©andmakethemth©subjectof1.inguistics.1.9.4 CompetenceandperformanceAccordingtoChomsky,a1.anguageuser'sunder1.yingk1.egeaboutthesystemofru1.esisca1.1.edthekngisticcompetence,andtheactua1.USCof1.anguageinconetsituationsisca1.1.edperformance.Competenceenab1.esaspeakertoproduceandunderstandandindefinitenumberofsentencesandtorecogrizegrammatica1.mistakesandambiguities.Aspeaker'scompetenceIsstab1.eMii1.ehisPed(XmanoeCSofteninf1.uencedbyosycho1.og>C3andsocia1.factorsSoaspeaker'sperformancedoesnotahvaysmatchhissupposedmpetence.Chomskybe1.ievesthat1.inguistsoughttostudycompetence,ratherthanperformance.Chomskyscompetence-perfo11nancedistinctionisnotexact1.ythesameas.thoughsmrto.SaussurcsIangveparo1.odistinction.1.angueisasocia1.productandasetofconventionsofacommunity,whi1.empte11cdeemedasapropertyofmindofeachindividua1.Saussure1.ooksa1.1.anguagemorefromasocio1.ogica1.orsoooigu<st>cPom1.ofvewthanChomskySanCethe1.atterdea1.swithhisissuesPsycbo1.ogcaiyorPSyChOfcngUiSbCaIM1.9.5 Eticvs.emicBeinge1.icmeansresearchers'makingfartmany,asWei1.asbehaviora1.1.yandinconsequentia1.,ditterentiations,jus!asoftenthecaseW(Ihponet>csvs.PhOnemiCSana1.ysesin1.inguisticsproper.Anemicsetofspeechactsandeventsmustbeonethatisvafcdatdasmeaningfu1.viafina1.resourcetothenativemembersofaspeechcommunityratherthanviaappea1.totheInvestigatorsIngenstyorGtUitiona1.oneFo1.1.owingthosuffixformationsof(phonIeticsvs(phon)e<nics.thesetermsworeintroducedintoth©socia1.sciencesbyKennethPike(1967)todenotethedistinctibetweenthemateria1.andfunctiona1.studyof1.anguage:pho11e<icsstudiestheacoustica11ymeasurab1.eanda11icu1.atontydefinab1.eimmediatesoundutterances,whereasPhonefniCSana1.yzesthespecificse1.ectioneach1.anguagemakesfromthatuniversa1.cata1.oguefromafunctiona1.aspect.Chapter2SpeechSounds2.1 SpeechproductionandperceptionPhoneticsisthestudyofspeechSoUndS.Kinc1.udesthreemainareas:1. Articu1.a1.oryPhonetBCS-thestudyoftheproductiofspeechsounds2. Acousiicphonetics-thestudyofthephysica1.propertiesofthesoundsproducedinspeech3. Auditoryphonetics-thestudyofperceptionofspeechsoundsMostphoneticiansareinterestedinarticu1.atoryphonetics.2.2 SpeechorgansSpeechorgansarethosepansofthehumanbodyinvo1.vedintheproductiono1.speech.Thespeechorganscanbensidrdas11sistingofthreeparts:theinitiatoroftheairstream,th©producer&vooceandtheresonatingcavities.2.3 Segments,divergences,andphonetictranscription2.3.1 SegmentsandCkvergenccsAstherearemor©soundsinEng1.ishthanits1.etters,each1.ettermustrepresentmor©thanonesound.2.3.2 PhoneticIranSCrip(ionInternationa1.PhoneticA1.phabet(IPA):thesystemofsymbo1.forrepresentingthepronunciationofwordsinany1.anguageacrdingtothephndptesoftheInternationa1.PboneticAssociation.Thesymbo1.sconststsof1.ettersandaac«iics.Some1.ettersaretakenfromtheRomana1.phabet.SOmCaspecia1.symbo1.s.2.4 Consonants2.4.1 Csonantsandvowe1.sAconsonanttsproducedbyconstrictingorobstructingthevoca1.tractatsomep*acestodivert,impede.orcomp1.ete1.yshutoi1.theI1.owOrarintheora1.cavtyAvowe1.isproducedWi1.hOUtobstructionsonoturbu1.ence(Xatota1.stoppingoftheaircanbeperceived.2.4.2 ConsonantsTheCa1.QgOneSofconsonantareestab1.ishedonthebasisofsevera1.Factors.Themostimpextantofthesefactorsare:1. theactua1.re1.ationshipbehveenthearticu1.atorsandthusthewayinWhiChtheairpassesthroughCenampadsofthevoca1.trad(mannerotarticu1.ation);2. whereinthevoca1.tractthereisapproximation,narrowing,ortheobstructionoftheair(p1.aceofarticu1.ation).2.4.3Mannersofarticu1.ation1. Stop*ptosfve:AspeechsoundMchsproducedbystoppingtheairstreamfromthe1.ungsandthensudden1.yre1.easingii.mEng1.ish.ar©stopsandjarenasa1.stops.2. Fricative:Aspeechsoundwhichisproducedbya1.1.owingIheairstreamfromthe1.ungstoescapewithfriction.Thisiscausedbybringingthetwoarticu1.ators,e.g.th©upperteethandthe1.ower1.ip.c1.osetogetherbutnotc1.osesenoughtostoptheairstreamscomptete*y.InEng1.ish.()arefricatives.3. (MCgn)approximantAnartcutioninwk>honearticu1.atort$c1.osetoanother,butwithoutthevoca1.tractbeingnarrowedtosuchanextentthataturtjfentairstreamtsproduced.InEng1.ishthisc1.assofsoundsinc1.udes1.4. 1.atera1.(appro×mant):ASPeoehsoundwhichisproducedbyPaniatyb1.ockingtheairstreamfromthe1.ungs,usua1.ybythetongue,but1.ettingitescapeatoneorbothsdesofthebJod<age.Jistheon1.y1.atera1.inEng1.ish.Otherconsonanta1.articu1.ationsinc1.udetri1.1.,taporf1.ap,andaffricate.2.4.4 P1.acesofarticu1.ation1. Bi1.abia1.:Aspeechsoundwichismad©withthetwo1.ips.2. 1.abiodenta1.:AspeechsoundwhichtsmadeWrththe1.over1.ipandtheupperfrontteeth.3. Denta1.AspeechSoUndwhichsmadebythetonguetip(XWadoandtheupperfrontteeth.4. A1.vedar:AspeechsoundwhichismadeWdhthetonguegorb1.adeandtheavco*arrdge5. Posta1.veo1.ar:AspeechsoundMichismadewithth©tonguetipandth©backofthea1.veo1.arridge.6. Retroftex:Aspeechsound也hicismadeWrththetonguetiporb1.adecur1.edbacksothattheundersideofthetonguetip(Xb1.adeformsastricturewththebackofthea1.veo1.arridgeorthehardpa1.ate.7. Pa1.ata1.:Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththefrontofthetongueandthehardpa1.ate.8. Ve1.ar:AspeechsoundwhichismadeWrththebackotthetongueandthesoftpa1.ate.9. Uvu1.arAspeechsoundwhichismadewiththebackoftheIOngIJeandtheuvu1.a,theshortprojectiono<thesofttissueandmuscieattheposteriorendoftheve1.um,10. Pharyngea1.:Aspeechsoundwchismad©Wi1.htherootofthetongueandth©wa1.1.softhepharynx.11. Gk>tta1.:AspeechsoundwhichismadewiththetwoPoeCeSofvoca1.foidspushedIowarcfeeachother.2.4.5 ThensonantsofEng1.ishReceivedPronunciation(RP):ThetypeofBritishStandardEng1.ishpronunciationwhichhasbeenregar<Jedastheprestigevarietyandvcshowsnoregona1.variation.Ithasoftenbeenpopu1.ar1.yreferredtoas“BBCEng1.ish'orPX(OrdEng1.ish"becauseitiswide1.yusedinth©privatesectoroftheeducationsystemandspokenbymostnewsreadersoftheBBCnetwork.AchartofEng1.ishconsonantsMannerofarticu1.ationP1.aceofarticu1.ationBi1.abia1.1.abiodenta1.Denta1.A1.veo1.arPost-a1.veo1.arPa1.ata1.VetarGtotta1.StopNasa1.FricativeApproximan1.1.atera1.AffricateInmanycasestherearetwoSOUndSthaisharethesamepiaccandmannerofarticu1.ation.Thesepairsofnso11arrtsar©distinguishedbyvocing.theOneappearingonthe1.eftisvoice1.essandtheoneontherightisvoiced.Therefore,theconsonantsofEng1.ishcanbedescr<>edinthefoovngway：pvoice1.essbe1.abia1.stop(b)voicedbi1.abia1.stop(svokxiessa1.veo1.arfricatrvezvoiceda1.veo1.arfricative(mbi1.aba1.nasa1.()a>ve<Marnasa1.(I)afvcoiarakxa1.U)pa1.ata1.approwmant(hg1.otta1.f11ca1.ive(aZeoSrap<oximant2.5 VoWe1.S2.5.1 Thecriteriaofvowe1.description1. Thepartofthetonguethatisraised-front,ce1.er,orback.2. Theextenttowhthetonguerisesinthedirectionofthepa1.ate.Norma1.1.y,threeor1.ourdegreesarerecognized：high,mid(oftendividedintoM1.highandmid1.ow)and1.ow.3. Thekindofopeningmadeatthe1.ips-variousdegreesof1.iproundingorspreading.4. Thepositiono<theso1.tpa1.ate-raisedforora1.vowe1.s,andK)Wercdforvowe1.swhichhavebeennasa1.ized.2.5.2 Thetheoryofcardina1.vovzetaCardina1.VOweISareasetotVoWaqua1.itiesart>irari1.ydetined,fixedandUnChangmg,intendingtoprovideaframeofreferenceIorthedescriptionoftheactua1.vowe1.sofexisting1.anguages.By11venbo11.thee(ghtprimarycardina1.vowe1.sarenumberedfromoneIoeightasfo1.1.ows：CV1,CV2(1，CV3(1.CVq),CV5(.CV6(,CV7).CV8).Asetofsecondarycardina1.VOWeiSisobtainedbyreversingtheHproundingforagiveposition:CV9-CV16.IamsorryIcannottypeoutmanyofthese.Ifyouwanttoknow,youmaynsu1.tthetextbookp.47.253VOwe1.g1.idesPuro(monophthong)VoWeISv